Ethnographic Studies of School Success and Failure

Valdez, G. (1998) The World Outside and Inside Schools: Language and Immigrant Children.     Education Researcher 27, (6) 0-18.

△ This Article is based on an ethnographic study of 2 Spanish speaking middle school immigrants who came to America knowing very little English. It focuses on their difficulty with acquiring English and making the transition into our schools. Valdez studies two female middle school students named Elisa and Lilian.    

△ The audience intended for this article is teachers and high school administrations with the purpose to inform.

△ Valdez wishes to investigate how and why immigrant children struggle when they come to America with little English speaking ability and have to make the transition into mainstream English classes.  

△ Valdez explains how Mission Vista schools had a surge in the number of Spanish/Latino students in the 1980’s due to affordable housing. The schools were not prepared for this new student population. Valdez’s article is important because this is now what is happening all over the country particularly here in the bay area with a very diverse student population.

△ Many mainstream teachers in Valdez’s study were not willing to come out of their comfort zones and assist immigrant students.

△ Although, these students were intrinsically motivated at the start they became frustrated when the school system didn’t foster their transition into learning English to perform well in school.

△ The school that Valdez looked at was divided into 4 levels of ESL for speakers of other languages, but students rarely were allowed to reach the advanced level. We saw this in the case of Elisa.

△ Students were taught in large multi-level classes of varying levels of proficiency by what sounds like the Grammar Translation Method of learning English. The immigrant students didn’t work in groups or do any meaningful learning in their classes. The students were segregated from the mainstream students and had little opportunities communicating in the target language.

△ Elisa became very motivated to learn and Lilian lost interest. Elisa almost had to beg her teachers to help her. Valdez states, “Elisa on the other hand, carefully copied sentences down in her notebook, looked ahead in the textbook, and asked to be allowed to hear the tape that accompanied the textbook”(p.8).   

△ Despite how hard Elisa’s mother tried her English speaking abilities were not strong enough to help her daughter and communicate with teachers at the school.

△ Valdez helped Elisa get out of what she called “The ESL ghetto” by assisting her in enrolling in a school where she could take mainstream courses, but she faced the same issues when she tried to attend college.

• How might you summarize the article in a few sentences? Teacher and schools may not be prepared for the diverse student population that is currently within our schools. There is a misconception that second language acquisition is relatively easy and that all students can learn English the same way and within the same time frame. There are ESL teachers in our schools that may not be trained or not trained well enough to help students who come here knowing zero English. Administrations need to set the bar higher for students so they can learn rather than continue to put them in remedial classes. We need better testing to assess students English speaking abilities.

 

 

Blog 2

Synthesis of the Two Articles

Key Issues:

△ African American children do not do as well as white and other minority children due to dialectal differences between Standard English of the public school and the children’s home dialect or Ebonics.

△ There is a difference between voluntary and involuntary minorities. Voluntary minorities are positive about learning Standard English because they feel it will give them better opportunities. Involuntary minorities are negative about learning Standard English because they see themselves as a lower social/economic status than middle-class white Americans. They also have a negative impression of their schools and relate their inferior education to discrimination. This in turn leads them to distrust teachers and their curriculum.

△ Involuntary minorities like the African American speech community in Lafayette have collective identities that are in opposition to Standard English and feel they would have to give up their home dialect to learn it.

△ There could be misunderstandings between dialects. Slang English may sound harsh or rude to people who use more of a Standard English and the latter may sound too formal and not the type of language that is used in everyday speech to the former.

△ Some speakers of other dialects think that Standard English is the language of white people and that they grew up learning that language.

△ Students may not be getting support for learning Standard English from their parents and the speech communities they are a part of. And using Standard English in their speech communities might be frowned upon.   

The readings show us that both teachers, parents and students need to be better informed of dialectical differences and how their beliefs have an impact on education. Teachers can build trust with their involuntary minority students by showing them that they believe in them academically. Educators need to be culturally sensitive and realize that involuntary minority students feel learning Standard English is a treat to their collective identity. Teachers can debunk the myth that all white people grow up learning Standard English and explain to students that Standard/Academic English needs to be acquired by all speakers of other dialects. Teachers can also show their students that there is a time and place for both dialects of English. Educators need to understand that involuntary minorities feel both parental/peer pressure in regards to learning Standard English. Teachers can open up communication with parents and try to help them recognize the incompatible beliefs about Standard English. How can we as educators bridge the gap between speakers of different dialects to ensure that involuntary minorities have a better chance at acquiring Standard English and being successful in school?

 

 

 

 

 

                     

Blog 1

Ogbu, U. J. (1999) Beyond Language: Ebonics, Proper English, and Identity in a Black-   American Speech Community. American Education Research Journal 36, (2) 147-184.

△ This Article is based on a 2 year ethnographic study of an African American speech community in Lafayette Oakland, California.

△ The audience intended for this article is educators and researchers with the purpose to inform.

△ Ogbu wishes to investigate why African American children do not do as well as white and other minority children due to dialect differences between standard English of the public school and the children’s home dialect or Ebonics.

△ According to Ogbu, “It is not only the degree of differences in dialects per se that counts. What also seems to count is the cultural meanings of those dialect differences. (p. 148).

△ Ogbu argues that sociolinguists in their studies have not examined the historical, societal, and cultural factors outside school that shape the social perceptions and interpretations of students and teachers observed in the classroom.

△ Ogbu calls the focus of his study a type five which he describes as a speech community with both diglossia and bilingualism but the frames of reference of the two languages or two dialects are oppositional. Ogbu is claiming that the African American speech community of Lafayette Oakland is unwilling or apathetic to learning standard English because of the effect it will have on their language community.

△ The author talks about voluntary and involuntary minorities who consider standard English as being a white language. The voluntary minorities he claims have a collective identity that is not oppositional to standard English and they look at it as learning a new dialect. Whereas involuntary minoritie’s (African American students of Lafayette) collective identity is in opposition to standard English and feel they would have to give up their home dialect to learn it.

△ Lafayette people refer to their dialect as ‘slang English’ and standard English as ‘proper English.”

△ The author talks about the misunderstanding of the two languages. The slang English may sound harsh or rude to proper English speakers and the latter may sound too formal and not the type of language that is used in everyday speech.

 

△ Lafayette people believe that slang English is their mother tongue and they grew up leaning that language.  They also think that what they call proper English is also white peoples mother tongue and that they grew up with that language.

△ Lafayette parents cannot and do not teach their children proper English at home. They also admonish their children when they do use it in the community. In other words, using proper English in the community is frowned upon. “Lafayette people are opposed to talking proper in the community because the speaker is suspected of thinking like White people the he or she is superior to or better than other Blacks” (p. 170).

• How might you summarize the article in a few sentences? The African American children of Lafayette do not do as well as white and other minority children due to dialect differences between standard English of the public school and the children’s home dialect or Ebonics.

The African American parents and students have misconceptions about standard English being the mother tongue of white people and that it is another dialect of English that needs to be learned for students to have educational and occupational success. The students and parents of Lafayette feel that standard English is the dialect of their oppressors and they are reluctant to learn it in fear of losing their home dialect/mother tongue. This explains why African American students are not having the same success in school as other minorities. The main purpose of Ogbu’s article is to inform educators of this problem so they can begin to come up with programs to communicate to involuntary minorities and their parents about these incompatible beliefs and enable them to acquire standard English.   

Ogbu, U. J. & Simmons, D. H. (1998) Voluntary and Involuntary Minorities: A Cultural-  Ecology Theory of School Performance with some Implications for Education.             Anthropology & Education Quarterly 29, (2) 155-188.

△ This article is based on Ogbu’s cultural-ecological theory of voluntary vs. involuntary minorities school performance based on their beliefs and behaviors. The article focuses on pedagogy in the last several pages.

△ Voluntary vs. Involuntary minorities.

△Voluntary minorities = Immigrant minorities that have moved to the United States of their own free will looking for better opportunities. Voluntary minorities may have trouble adjusting to American schools, but do not experience these difficulties long term.

△ Involuntary minorities = Minorities that have been conquered, colonized or enslaved. They are not necessarily in America of their own free will. These minorities feel as though they are forced to assimilate into the United States. Some involuntary minorities are usually less economically successful as voluntary minorities and could experience more cultural and language difficulties. This group may not perform as well in school.

△ According to Ogbu & Simmons, “Ogbu’s research suggests that some beliefs and behaviors apply to enough members of a minority group or a type of minority group to form a visible pattern. Not all members of a minority group believe the same thing or behave the same way” (p. 168). So the authors are looking at a pattern of beliefs of the involuntary minority group.

△ The authors talk about how some Mexican immigrants have been able to pass into white society through intermarriage whereas this is more difficult for African Americans because physical features would prevent it.

△ Status Frame of Reference:

Voluntary minorities have a positive frame of reference because they see more opportunities for success in the United States as opposed to their home countries. Ogbu argues that voluntary minorities are more willing to accept not being treated equally for possible economic success.

Involuntary minorities have a negative frame of reference compared to voluntary minorities. They see themselves as having a lower social and economic status than middle-class white Americans. Involuntary minorities do not see America as a land of opportunity like voluntary minorities. Involuntary minorities also have a negative impression of their schools and relate their inferior education to discrimination. This in turn leads them to not trust their curriculum and teachers.

△ Instrumental Responses (relates to folk theory or beliefs):

Voluntary minorities believe that they can be successful through hard work, a good education and following the rules.

Involuntary minorities believe job and wage discrimination is institutionalized. They believe that hard work and good education is important, but not enough to overcome racism and discrimination. The students may also adopt these beliefs from their parents and from what they have seen through other members of the involuntary minorities experiences.

△ Voluntary minorities trust white institutions where as involuntary minorities due not due to a long history of discrimination, racism and conflict.

△ Voluntary minorities do not see learning standard English as a treat to their collective identity whereas involuntary minorities do. As we have seen in the earlier article voluntary minorities think of learning standard English as learning a new dialect that does not take away from their home dialect. Involuntary minorities on the other hand feel their home dialects are in opposition to standard English and a treat to their collective identity.  

△ Voluntary minorities have a positive attitude about school and the students are encouraged by their parents to do well. If the student does not do well the parents blame their children rather than the institution. Involuntary minority students get mixed messages from their parents about the importance of education. And when their children don’t do well the parents blame the institution rather than their children.

△ The theory is not a pedagogy, but a way to inform educators about the differences between voluntary and involuntary minorities in regards to success in school.

△The theory will give educators an understanding why involuntary minorities perform and act the way they do both inside and outside of the classroom.

△ Teachers can build trust with their involuntary minority students by showing them that they believe in them academically. Educators need to be culturally sensitive and realize that involuntary minority students feel learning standard English is a treat to their collective identity. Teachers can also show their students that there is a time and place for both dialects of English. The hope is that involuntary minorities will begin to trust their teachers and start seeming them as an ally rather than an enemy. Teachers can also make positive contacts with parents about what their children are doing well rather than just when they are failing. And I guess most importantly educators need to understand that involuntary minorities feel both parental/peer pressure in regards to learning standard English.

• How might you summarize the article in a few sentences? There is a difference between voluntary and involuntary minorities in regards to their beliefs/behaviors about education and it influences their success. The authors claim voluntary minorities see more opportunities for success in the United States than in their home countries and are willing to accept not being treated equally for possible economic success. On the other hand, involuntary minorities see themselves as having a lower social and economic status than middle-class white Americans. Involuntary minorities feel their home dialects are in opposition to standard English and a treat to their collective identity. Teachers can help involuntary minorities adjust and do better in school by creating trust, being culturally sensitive and communicating with parents.  

 

 

 

                     

Analyze Spoken Language Interference

Pot Legal –

 Phonology – In the first sentence the author uses an apostrophe on children’s when it should not have an apostrophe. The word marijuana is misspelled as mariguana. In the last sentence of the third paragraph the author uses these instead of this. Using these instead of this in the last sentence of the third paragraph could be homophonic confusion.  

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics

Weird Friday –    

 Phonology - the author uses gonna for going to as well as contractions such as couldn’t instead of could not. This student also uses an instead of and.   

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics

Spelling –

Phonology - – the author used the contraction I’m instead of I am as well as don’t for do not. The spelling of my self as separate words could be a homophonic confusion when the spelling should be myself. Spelling of faith as fait.

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics

Introductions –

Phonology – Again we see contractions I’m for I am and I’ve for I have. Student #3 uses the word no for know.

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics

From Oral to Academic

I think one of the main reasons why it is difficult for students to transition from oral language to written academic language is because the latter is like a whole new language of its own.  Written academic language has rules, a format and vocabulary that is different from spoken language and new writers regardless of their backgrounds all have to lean these differences. I know as a native speaker of English that when I first started academic writing I would write what I would say right on the page. I still have to edit my writing to make sure I am not breaking this rule. Another difficulty is being aware that you should not use idiomatic expressions or contractions in academic writing. These are all things that novice writers have to learn through their composition classes and other writings they do in class. One of my graduate professors helped me think in terms of writing academically by calling it an economy of words. I believe there is a book by the same name, but just that title has helped me be mindful of the words I use in my papers as a writing student.

I think generation 1.5 students probably have the most difficulty moving from informal oral language to that of academic writing because they could have gaps in their education and may not have had formal grammar instruction. They have also acquired English primarily through listening to the language so it would feel natural to just write what they have heard in their papers. I think international students may also have some difficulty with this transition because they haven’t had many opportunities with using English orally. Combined with being unfamiliar with the structure of written academic English these students are learning how to write through trial and error and may incorporate what they hear into their writing.

I would explain to all novice writers that learning academic language is similar to learning a new language and that it is a process that every writer has to go through to become skillful. I would use my difficulties with making the transition to academic writing as examples of what is acceptable and what is not in written essays. I would urge my students and tutees to become familiar with academic vocabulary through actively reading and making note of common words that are used in their given disciplines. I would have my students write early and often to get them used to writing academically and remind them that they can learn from their mistakes.         

Perusing the Blogs

I think my group-mate’s blogs were very insightful and got me thinking deeper about tutoring and teaching composition. Kathleen made me think about the topic of academic voice and how we need to explain the difference between spoken and written language to our students. This was important to me because it is not something I consciously think about as a writer myself and would probably just assume that my students and tutees know the difference.  I also liked that Kathleen mentioned the importance of helping tutees identify the common errors they make. This really helps students in regards to grammar issues. If I as a tutor can help my tutee identify and begin to self correct grammar errors they are consistently making I feel I am really helping them improve their writing.

One of Katie’s blogs made me realize that some students have the same fears such as reading aloud in class and that as a tutor/teacher I should be sensitive to that fact. She also reinforced my belief that positive reinforcement can encourage our students to become better writers. We both had similar experiences where professors influenced us and gave us confidence. Katie also helped me reflect on my own process of printing out my paper during revision and how this could also be beneficial to students during their editing.

Kyle brought up a great point of sharing written work with friends, colleagues and trained writers to catch things you might not see in your editing process. I like to call this having a second pair of eyes look at my paper and I encourage my tutees to do this before handing in their essays. I also liked the questions Kyle asked his tutees in his initial interviews with them. He asks, “What do you consider to be your strengths in writing? And what do you consider to be your weakness in writing? I believe these two questions can also help guide a tutoring session. When the tutee reveals their strenths I have a chance to give them positive reinforcement which then in turn could encourage them in their writing. I've also had many tutees make general statements like “I want to work on my grammar.” But I think questions like Kyle asks help tutors dig deeper and pinpoint common grammar problems the student is having. These types of questions would prompt me to ask the student, “Has anyone ever mentioned specific grammar issues that you have such as articles, subject verb agreement or tense?  Do you have a particular grammar point you don't understand or want to work on?’

  

How I ‘Mastered’ Academic Writing

I feel that I never mastered high school. I wasn’t a very serious student back then and I barely passed.  Maybe one of the main reasons was because we didn’t do the types of writing in my high school that I have had to do throughout my college career. I may have written personal narratives along the way, but I don’t remember writing expository, argumentative or research-based essays in high school.

As an older returning student in city college it was my passion that helped me. I was excited about being an Asian studies major and wanted to learn all I could about Asia. Writing was easy for me because I wrote mostly from the heart.  I remember being a very expressivist writer in my initial papers at city college and it was surprisingly getting me through. Then I hit a little snag when I got a paper back from my Asian American history professor. I had gotten a B rather than an A this time. I went to my professor’s office hours to see what I need to do to turn my paper around. That is when I got introduced to thesis statements. It was a struggle grappling at first with the idea that I had to have a thesis in my paper to prove my arguments. I clearly remember writing my first thesis and what a challenge it was, but then once I figured it out it was like someone had given me the golden ticket. This sparked my passion for writing even more. Then I had to take English 101 and I realized that there was more to college writing than just thesis, I discovered that writing essays was a whole process. I missed the mark on a few of my first writing assignments, but through trial and error I became a better writer. I will always remember my English 101 professors end comments on one of my A papers. She said, “Your argument is strong and well supported through evidence and analysis.  I have no comments for you on this paper.” I was so happy at that moment and that returned essay felt like a trophy to me.

I feel that I continued to grow as a writer after transferring to university. I remember misunderstanding one of my professor’s instructions for one of the first papers I wrote at that level. I freaked out because I had to rewrite the entire paper. I realized the importance of understanding the prompt and asking questions when I was not clear about something. I also had issues with not enough reflection and redundancy in my papers at times. I would have to say that office hours have always been a benefit to me as a writer. Those initial instincts of going to the professor and asking how I can do better have always helped me improve as a writer. My professors were always open to me during office hours and would give me constructive criticism that really helped me write better papers. I noticed that I wouldn’t do so well when I got too confident and rested on my laurels. I remember taking a graduate seminar and going to office hours due to a poorly written paper and my professor saying, “Michael this is not your best work.” It was then I knew that to do well I had to revise and edit my papers carefully before I turned them in. I went on to work in my universities writing center because I thought it would be good experience and I knew I wanted to go on to get my master’s in teaching English to speakers of other languages. I think teaching other students about the process of writing has continued to help me improve as a writer. Currently, I work as a reading, writing and study skills tutor at the Learning Assistance Center and it continues to help me in that regard.

Writing as a graduate student was also a bit of a challenge for me at first. One of the difficulties I faced was all of the new vocabulary and metalanguage of my department.  I also found it a uncomforable when I learned that I had to write papers in APA for TESOL. This was a format I was unfamiliar with, but I feel my previous writing experience and guidance from my professors has helped me adjust to just about any writing situation. However, I would have to say that at the graduate level I haven’t received as much of a hand hold in office hours as I did in my undergrad, but I guess that is to be expected since we are graduate students after all. This just makes me thankful that I did have professors that would give me constructive criticism about my writing and answer my questions throughout my early academic career.